THE NATIVE TRIBES OF SOUTH-EAST AUSTRALIA
The Native Tribes of South-East Australia
A. W. Howitt
Macmillan and Co., Limited · London · 1904 · First Edition
HOWITT’S ACCOUNT — Wotjobaluk, p. 484
“The Wotjobaluk account of the creation of mankind is that long ago Ngunung-ngunnut, the Bat, who was a man, lived on the earth, and there were others like him, but there was no difference between the sexes. Feeling lonely, he wished for a wife, and he altered himself and one other, so that he was the man and the other was the woman.”
SEXLESS BEINGS
Howitt records that originally there were beings who were not distinguished by sex. Ngunung-ngunnut changes himself and another so that one becomes male and the other female.
HOWITT’S ACCOUNT — Wurunjerri, p. 484
“According to the Wurunjerri, it was Bunjil who made men of clay and imparted life to them, while his brother, Pallina, the bat, brought women up out of the water to be their wives.”
Bunjil — Men Created from Clay
In the Wurunjerri tradition, the creation of men and women is attributed to two distinct beings, each responsible for a different part of humanity's origin.
HOWITT’S ACCOUNT — Yuin, p. 485
“According to the Yuin, the eastern neighbours of the Kurnai, before there were men there were creatures somewhat like human beings, but without members. Muraurai, the Emu-wren, turned them into men and women by splitting their legs, separating their arms from the sides, and slitting up their fingers, and otherwise perfecting them.”
PRE-HUMAN BEINGS TRANSFORMED
Before humans existed, the Yuin describe beings that already resemble humans but do not have fully formed bodies. Muraurai physically alters these beings, transforming them into men and women.
HOWITT’S ACCOUNT — Kurnai, p. 486
“There was a great flood which covered the land, and drowned the people, excepting a man and two women. Bunjil Borun, the Pelican, came by in his canoe, and took the man across to the mainland, then one woman, leaving the better-looking one to the last.”
The Great Flood — The Kurnai Survivors
The Kurnai preserve a tradition of widespread destruction by flood, with three human survivors rescued by a pelican figure. Unlike stories where a vessel preserves humanity, here survival depends on an intervening being.
HOWITT’S ACCOUNT — p. 487
“They recognise a primitive time before man existed, and when the earth was inhabited by beings, the prototypes of, but more powerful in magic, than the native tribes. Those beings, if they did not create man, at least perfected him from some unformed and scarcely human creatures.”
Before Man — Earlier Beings Inhabit the Earth
Howitt identifies a common idea across these traditions. The earth was inhabited before humanity by other beings, described as more powerful than humans. In some accounts, they create humanity; in others, they transform earlier human-like life forms into mankind.
HOWITT’S ACCOUNT — Narrinyeri, p. 488
“According to Taplin, the Narrinyeri ‘call the Supreme Being by the names Nurrundere and Martummere. He is said to have made all things on the earth, and to have given to men the weapons of war and hunting, and to have instituted all the rites and ceremonies which are practised by the aborigines, whether connected with life or death.’”
“Nurrundere went to Wyirra-warre, taking his children with him.”
followed by: “Wyirra-warre is said to be the sky”
THE TRIBAL ALL-FATHER — MAKER OF ALL THINGS
Among the Narrinyeri, Nurrundere is credited with creating the earthly world and establishing human customs. He subsequently departs with his children to the sky and celestial realm.
HOWITT’S ACCOUNT — Wotjobaluk, p. 489
“The Wotjobaluk spoke of Bunjil as a great man, who was once on the earth, but is now in the sky. His wives were two sisters Ganawarra (Black Swan). A brother of Bunjil was Djurt, who is now a star near to him.”
Bunjil — The Creator in the Sky
The Wotjobaluk tradition places Bunjil, previously associated with the creation of humanity, in the sky after an earlier existence on earth. His brother Djurt is identified as a nearby “star.”
HOWITT’S ACCOUNT — Wotjobaluk, p. 490
“The Wotjobaluk also spoke of Bunjil as Mami-ngorak, that is, ‘our father,’ and said that he is in some place beyond the Wurra-wurra, or sky. This place is said to be also beyond the Wurk-kerim, or dark place, which the medicine-men told them ‘is like a mountain.’ My informants, who did not belong to the medicine-man calling, said further that the Bangal (medicine-men) told them that they were met at the Wurk-kerim by another being called Gargomitch, who leaving them there went to where Mami-ngorak is and brought back to them his answer to their inquiries.”
BUNJIL BEYOND THE SKY
The Wotjobaluk further describe Bunjil's dwelling as lying beyond the sky itself, past a mysterious dark region called Wurk-kerim. The text describes communication with this distant realm: “Gargomitch goes to where Bunjil is and returns with his response.”
HOWITT’S ACCOUNT — Mukjarawaint, p. 491
“All that I know of the beliefs of the Mukjarawaint is that Bunjil was once a man who was the father of all the people, and that he was good and did no harm to any one.”
Then the Kulin material adds: “Bunjil, as represented by them, seems to be an old man, the benign Ngurungaeta or Headman of the tribe…”
and, importantly: “Another legend relates that he finally went up to the sky-land with all his people (the legend says ‘sons’)…”
Finally: “Mungan-ngaua is the Headman in the sky-country, the analogue of the Headman of the tribe on the earth.”
Bunjil & Mungan-ngaua — The Sky-Country
Bunjil is remembered as the father of the people who once lived on earth and later went with his sons to the “sky-land.” The Kurnai separately place Mungan-ngaua as Headman of a “sky-country,” mirroring the tribal order on earth.
These traditions are separate from the Narrinyeri account of Nurrundere, who is also said to have departed with his children to the sky.
HOWITT’S ACCOUNT — Kulin, p. 492
“The legend is that Bunjil held out his hand to the sun (Gerer) and warmed it, and the sun warmed the earth, which opened, and blackfellows came out and danced this corroborree, which is called Gayip.”
Then the strongest line: “Bunjil was the maker of the earth, trees, and men,”
BUNJIL — MAKER OF THE EARTH AND HUMANITY
The Kulin tradition credits Bunjil with a direct role in creation. He is remembered as “the maker of the earth,” while another tradition describes people emerging from the earth after Bunjil influences the sun.
HOWITT’S ACCOUNT — Kurnai, p. 493
“They are told that long ago he lived on the earth, and taught the Kurnai of that time to make implements, nets, canoes, weapons—in fact, everything that they know.”
Then the cause of the destruction: “When some one impiously revealed the secrets of the Jeraeil to women, and thereby brought the anger of Mungan-ngaua on the Kurnai, he sent his fire, the Aurora Australis, which filled the whole space between the earth and the sky. Men went mad with fear, and speared each other, fathers killing their children, husbands their wives, and brethren each other.”
And then: “Then the sea rushed over the land and nearly all mankind was drowned. Those who survived became the Muk-kurnai. Some turned into animals, birds, reptiles, fishes, and Tundun and his wife became porpoises. Mungan left the earth, and ascended to the sky where he still remains.”
Mungan-ngaua — Humanity Destroyed
Mungan-ngaua lives on earth and teaches the Kurnai their knowledge. When sacred knowledge is improperly revealed, his anger brings catastrophe. Fire fills the space between earth and sky, then the sea covers the land. Mungan-ngaua leaves the earth and ascends to the sky.
HOWITT’S ACCOUNT — Wathi-wathi, p. 494
“They say that he came from the far north, and now lives in the sky. He told each tribe which language they were to speak. He made men, women, and dogs, and the latter used to talk, but he took the power of speech from them.”
Then: “According to the Wathi-wathi, it was Tha-tha-pulli who changed the Bookoomurri (the primitive beings) into animals. Another legend says that they transformed themselves, and that as animals they felt an interest in the new race of human beings which Tha-tha-pulli created after their change.”
Tha-tha-pulli — The Primitive Beings and a New Humanity
The Wathi-wathi place Tha-tha-pulli in the sky and credit him with creating humanity. Their tradition also remembers “primitive beings” who existed before the new human race. These earlier beings became animals, followed by the creation of a new race of humans.
HOWITT’S ACCOUNT — Yuin, p. 495
“Originally the earth was bare and ‘like the sky, as hard as a stone,’ and the land extended far out where the sea is now. There were no men or women, but only animals, birds, and reptiles. He placed trees on the earth.”
Then: “After Kaboka, the thrush, had caused a great flood on the earth, which covered all the coast country, there were no people left, excepting some who crawled out of the water on to Mount Dromedary.”
And immediately afterward: “Then Daramulun went up to the sky, where he lives and watches the actions of men.”
DARAMULUN — THE FLOOD AND SURVIVORS
The Yuin remember an earlier world extending into land now covered by the sea. A flood caused by Kaboka, covers the coastal land. A group survives by reaching Mount Dromedary. Daramulun then ascends to the sky, where he is said to remain.
Important distinction: unlike the Mungan-ngaua account on p. 493, this passage doesn't say Daramulun caused the Flood or that it was a judgment.
HOWITT’S ACCOUNT — Herbert River tribes, pp. 498–499
“Kohin came long ago down from Kuling, and appeared to their fathers as a carpet-snake. He said that where he came from was a good land and in it a vast river full of splendid fish.”
“He had two Tikovinas with him, which he presented to the tribe, and told them that if they were good men and wore them, they would not be killed in fight, and that they could fly.”
“Two men tried it, and succeeded in going from tree to tree as the flying-squirrels do. Afterwards, becoming more expert, they flew from mountain to mountain.”
“He then told them to get two large bags filled with gum-tree leaves, and to start for the Milky Way. This they did, and confirmed all that Kohin had said.”
“One returned, but the other refused to leave such good quarters…”
“Kohin, who had remained on the Herbert while the two were absent… now went away, leaving the two Tikovinas with the tribe, telling them that when he sent another, marked red in the centre, they would have all to go to Kuling, and live there.”
Kohin — From Kuling to the Milky Way
Kohin is said to come down from Kuling and appear to the ancestors as a carpet-snake. He teaches two men to fly and sends them to the Milky Way, where one chooses to stay. Before leaving Earth, Kohin tells the tribe that they too will eventually go to Kuling and live there.
HOWITT’S ACCOUNT, p. 500
“a belief exists in an anthropomorphic supernatural being, who lives in the sky, and who is supposed to have some kind of influence on the morals of the natives.”
“This supernatural being, by whatever name he is known, is represented as having at one time dwelt on the earth, but afterwards to have ascended to a land beyond the sky, where he still remains, observing mankind.”
“He can be invisible; but when he makes himself visible, it is in the form of an old man of the Australian race. He is evidently everlasting, for he existed from the beginning of all things, and he still lives.”
THE SUPERNATURAL BEING BEYOND THE SKY
Howitt identifies a broader tradition of an eternal, sometimes invisible being who observes humanity from beyond the sky, suggesting that the earlier accounts share a common conception of a celestial overseer.
HOWITT’S ACCOUNT, pp. 501–502
“they believe in a supreme Being called Boyma, who dwells in the north-east, in a heaven of beautiful appearance. He is represented as seated on a throne of transparent crystal, with beautiful pillars of crystal on each side.” “Grgorgally is his son, who watches over the actions of mankind. He leads the souls of the dead to Boyma.” “The first man made by Boyma was called Moodgegally, who lives near the heaven of Boyma. He lives on the earth and has the power of visiting Boyma, whose place he reaches by a winding path, round a mountain, whence he ascends by a ladder or flight of steps. There he received laws from Boyma.”
BOYMA — THE CREATOR IN HEAVEN
Boyma is clearly placed in a heavenly realm and credited with creating the first man. The account also describes movement between earth and Boyma’s realm. Moodgegally stays on earth but can reach Boyma by ascending a mountain and then taking a ladder or stairs, where he receives laws from the creator.
THREE SEPARATE CREATOR TRADITIONS
Bunjil — creator tradition associated with Victorian peoples.
Nurrundere — separate creator and ancestral-being tradition associated with peoples of South Australia.
Boyma — separate New South Wales tradition; described as dwelling in heaven and as the being who made the first man. Manning recorded the account in 1844–45, but possible Christian influence cannot be entirely excluded here.
THE ABORIGINAL ORIGIN OF THE SKY-COUNTRY TRADITIONS
HOWITT, pp. 504–507
Howitt directly considers whether missionary teaching could explain these beliefs. He acknowledges genuine cases of Christian influence, then examines the Kurnai tradition separately. Based on its transmission through earlier generations and the Kurnai’s isolation from other ceremonial traditions Howitt concludes that the belief in Mungan-ngaua is Aboriginal in origin. He argues that similar coastal beliefs should be accepted on the same basis.
Howitt also concludes that the wider tradition, including the “father” and sky-country, is Aboriginal in origin as well.
HOWITT’S ACCOUNT, p. 506
“the tribe of the dead, living in the sky-country, but also able to visit the earth”
HOWITT’S ACCOUNT, p. 507
“I am satisfied [the belief] has been locally evolved, and not introduced from without.”
